Gunpowder—created by monks?

Throughout history, technology has been the primary driver of military innovation, constantly reshaping the battlefield and challenging the nature of conflict. From the first use of fire and stone tools to artificial intelligence, every technological shift has had a profound impact on warfare. One such of these inventions is gunpowder.

Dating all the way back to the 9th century CE, Chinese monks discovered this technology while searching for a life-extending elixir. The primary ingredient, saltpeter (potassium nitrate), had been used for centuries for medicinal purposes, however it was found to be incendiary and was promptly applied to warfare.

However, gunpowder had one main flaw, its ingredients had to be measured properly in order for the mixture to function as intended. Therefore, the technological advancement assumed the form of the knowledge of the formula rather than the materials. The formula developed over time with the most effective ratio in the 13th century was 1/13 sulfur, 3/13 charcoal, and 9/13 parts saltpeter which eventually developed into 10% sulfur, 15% charcoal, and 75% saltpeter. Further developments would come when in the 14th century, Europeans began adding liquid to the mixture, changing it into a paste which came to be known as “corned powder.” This change from powder to paste drastically improved the practicality of primitive bombs and guns, as corned powder was more durable, reliable, and safe.

As European powers emerged into the Early modern Period, saltpeter came into high demand. The British and Dutch, unable to self-supply saltpeter at this point in time, looked overseas and trading companies were established to further European interests. However, many different competitors emerged including: the English East India Trading Company, the Dutch East India Company, the French “Compagnie des Indes orientales”, and the Prussian Bengal and Asiatic Companies. This competition can be compared to many different scrambles such as for oil in the 19th and 20th century, the Nuclear Arms Race, and the colonial partition of Africa also during the 19th and 20th century.

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